Language, Cognition and Scaffolding

1. Language Importance

Regarding communication or language in CLIL, two key terms are interaction, and progression in language using (Coyle, 2010). It is principal to differentiate between language using and language learning. CLIL language use/communication goes beyond the grammar system but, at the same time, does not reject the essential role of grammar and lexis. The emphasis here is on communication and immediate demands.

Language is linked with content and cognition – when learners learn through a foreign language, they reconstruct the content using related cognitive processes. Coyle emphasises that this language must be accessible to learners (2010). A language in CLIL is used as a communication tool; at the same time, the language is taught to learners. The author (2010) presented the concept of the Language Triptych, which reflected the complexity of language learning and using CLIL. This concept is also known as the 3A framework (Analyse, Add and Apply) guidance for CLIL lesson planning.

A novice CLIL teacher may formulate the following questions connected to language:

What language do they need to work with the content?

Is there any specialised vocabulary and phrases?

What kind of discussions will they engage in?

Will I need to check out key grammatical coverage of a particular tense or feature?

What about the language of tasks and classroom activities?

What about discussion and debate?

1.1. Language Triptych

the Language triptych by Coyle is summarized as follows (2010, p. 37-38):

Language of learning is the language needed for learners to access basic concepts and skills related to the subject theme or topic of the CLIL lesson. Simply, it is the vocabulary of the content. Teachers may use a bit higher level of difficulty in language if the learner is supported by using specific phrases rather than learning grammar paradigms. Such language moves towards functional levels of difficulty demanded by the content.

Language for learning is the language learners, and teachers need to operate in a foreign language environment. By scaffolding, teachers give the learners strategies to be able to use the language effectively. This is why planning is necessary; teachers need to plan how to develop learners' skills such as pair work, group work, thinking, memorising so that the tasks can be carried out effectively.

 Language through learning is based on the principle that effective learning cannot occur without the active involvement of language and thinking. When learners are encountered to articulate their understanding, then a deeper level of learning takes place. In CLIL settings, the learners create new meanings, and this requires a new language. This kind of language cannot be preceded in advance, and it is the language needed by individual learners during the process of learning. Like children use (although imperfect) language from early childhood, we, too, cannot wait until a learner can speak a foreign language fluently, using perfect grammar and rich vocabulary.

1.2. CLIL language

While planning the CLIL lesson, one should deal with a language or communication and understand what each" CLIL language" means. 

Firstly of language is needed for learners

• to access basic concepts and skills relating to the subject theme or topic;
• to acquire language specific to the subject;
• to define the content-obligatory language, such as keywords, phrases and grammatical demands of the unit (e.g. the language of discussing, hypothesising, analysing).

reflection points:

What type of language does this subject or theme use?

What kind of talk do learners need to engage in, and how do we build in progression over time?

What is the most effective way of teaching the language of learning?

Which of the identified language and skills shall we target for development in this particular unit?

Secondly for language learners need

• to be supported in developing skills such as those required for pair work, cooperative group work, asking questions, debating, chatting, enquiring, thinking, memorising, et
• to operate in a foreign language environment

reflection points:

What kind of language do learners need to operate effectively in this CLIL unit?

What are the possible language demands of typical tasks and classroom activities? (e.g. how to work in groups, organise research)

Which language skills will need to be developed? (e.g. discussion skills) How are we developing metacognitive strategies? (learning how to learn – e.g. reading strategies, comprehension strategies)

How can learning be scaffolded (supported) by the teaching and learning of a specific language? (e.g. language used to seek additional information, assistance, explanation and access to other sources).

How do students practise their new language and recycle familiar language?

Have we prioritised the language for learning in this unit concerning the content? (i.e. what students need to know at which stage of the content – e.g. focus on developing reasoning, making a case).

Is the language which is used to assess the learning accessible to the learners?

Finally through language emerges from the active involvement of learners thinking and asking. New meanings would require a new language. It needs to be captured while during the learning process, then recycled and developed later. It can not be predicted in advance.

reflection points:

What necessary language functions and notions do the students know already?

How can these be practised and extended?

What strategies can our learners use to access new language for themselves?

When a new language emerges, how shall we capture and select language for further development?

How can we define language progression in this unit?

2. Cognitive engagement

1. in science lessons learners may struggle to describe and compare the properties of materials; 
2. may find it impossible to hypothesize about why particular materials are used for particular purposes;
3. may be able to write up the procedural part of a report after testing materials but not how to write conclusions.

2.1. BICS and CALP

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency - CALP: the language development for studying curricular subjects. Researchers have noted that it takes learners at least five years to attain a level of English suitable for academic school study. The time depends on the learning context and the level of previous education, and prior learning learners bring with them to CLIL. The language taught and produced is cognitively demanding and often impersonal, e.g., listening to lectures on abstract topics, writing essays. Cognitive processes linked to CALP include:
identify criteria
justify opinions
form hypotheses
interpret evidence. 

In short, CALP refers to the language of academic learning.

2.2. Teaching to think

Bloom’s taxonomy was created in 1956 to classify the thinking levels. A taxonomy is a system of classification which provides a conceptual framework. Bloom’s Taxonomy is simple, easy to remember and easy to apply. Cognitive processes were divided by Bloom into lower-order thinking - LOT (remembering, understanding, applying) and higher-order thinking - HOT (analysing, evaluating, creating), both of which are integral to effective learning.

According to Fredericks (2005), approximately 80 per cent of all the questions teachers tend to ask are factual, literal, or knowledge-based. The result is a classroom in which there is little creative thinking taking place. Therefore, Meyer (2010) recommends focusing on higher-order thinking skills. It means applying higher-order thinking processes in the tasks performed by students. As he emphasises, it is the key to success in the Information Age. It is not easy for the teachers as it requires comprehensive planning of tasks, vocabulary and scaffolding.

2.3. Language and Thinking

2.4. Cognitive Teaching and Cognitive Questioning

2.5. Thinking skills lessons based on principles of cognitive teaching

3. Scaffolding

Scaffolding, a key strategy in CLIL, aids foreign language learners by providing support to comprehend new concepts, deepen learning, and develop skills rapidly. Originating from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, scaffolding aligns with the zone of proximal development, bridging the gap between current knowledge and potential achievement with assistance.

In CLIL, teachers construct dual scaffolds for language and content, capitalizing on existing knowledge to foster critical and creative thinking. Scaffolding encompasses various forms, including step-by-step instructions, language frames, and example sentences, forming the cornerstone of language teaching across contexts. It is crucial to distinguish scaffolding from mere assistance, as the former gradually fades as students gain independence, facilitating access to and analysis of acquired knowledge. Teachers, parents, and peers contribute to scaffolding, which manifests in teaching materials and learning processes, aiming to reach learning goals with tailored support. 

Various techniques, such as comprehension checks, visual aids, and real-life connections, empower students to engage with content effectively, ensuring a meaningful learning journey in CLIL classrooms.

3.1. Language Scaffolding

We can consider the language levels required, by constructing a hierarchy based on word/sentence/text levels, as follows:

Word level: Recognition and use of new vocabulary in order to understand a new concept. Example: Create a labelled piechart for a presentation.

Sentence level: Recognition and use of crucial concept phrases with attention to linguistic accuracy. Example: Order sentences to show a process with correction of mistakes.

3.2. Tasks promoting language development

Word level

The teacher knows that the class will be unable to describe the photograph immediately without understanding the context. The hope is to engage students, that they may develop both thinking skills and vocabulary. The photograph will also supply the focus for a writing task. Here are the questions:

How many people are there?

Who are these people?

Where are they?

How do you know this?

When was the photograph taken (winter, summer, daytime, weekend)?

What are these people doing?

How do they feel?

From word level to sentence level

The first three questions are straightforward that might be answered using a single word (a number, a name or yes/no). The following question raises the thinking level and invites reasoning and speculation rather than mere observation. The fifth one: The teacher can give vocabulary headers (in the target language) to respond to question five, such as weather: cloudy, sunny, temperature; light: dawn, midday, evening. The teacher can provide sentence beginnings to respond to question six. They are sitting…, They are playing…, They are jumping.

Text level

Learners can be given a written task similar to Describe the picture to a friend who hasn't seen it. The teacher can add one more scaffolding tool: a substitution table.

Figure Chain of task types

The sequence begins at word level with the introduction of new concepts and their related vocabulary and definitions. The second and third steps work the reinforcement of vocabulary and concepts. The fourth step is based on a hands-on activity, creating a clay model representing a landscape, which has to be described with the help of a substitution table. At this level, students are requested to describe and compare the landforms.

3.3. Tasks promoting content development

A number of essential components are required for effective CLIL lessons, especially when it comes to the sequencing in which tasks correspond with the content:

1. Introduction to Content: The manner in which students are introduced to the content sets the tone for engagement and comprehension. Effective introduction strategies lay the groundwork for deeper exploration and understanding.

2. Processing Content: How students process content is vital, encompassing the structure of their thinking and expression of understanding. Task design should encourage critical thinking and meaningful expression to foster cognitive development.

3. Combining Communication and Cognition: Balancing communication and cognition levels is essential in CLIL lessons. Tasks should not only facilitate language acquisition but also promote conceptual understanding and higher-order thinking skills.

4. Motivation: Motivation plays a significant role in CLIL success, influencing students' engagement, effort, and perseverance. Teachers must employ strategies to sustain students' interest and enthusiasm throughout the learning process.

The concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), introduced by Vygotsky, guides task progression in CLIL lessons. Sequencing tasks in five stages within the ZPD framework facilitates incremental learning:

1. Individual Work: Students brainstorm previous knowledge independently, addressing any misconceptions with scaffolding support.

2. Group Work 1: New inputs are provided to groups, with each group receiving different input to address misconceptions and scaffold understanding.

3. Group Work 2: New groups are formed, encouraging knowledge sharing among members from previous groups. Teacher monitoring is crucial at this stage to provide necessary scaffolding.

4. Recapping Task: Groups reflect on what they've learned and perform a task together, reinforcing understanding with scaffolding support.

5. Individual Work: Students apply new knowledge independently to demonstrate comprehension in a different context, with scaffolding assistance as needed.

Pair and group work are inherent to CLIL classrooms, allowing for collaborative learning experiences. Structuring tasks effectively empowers students to progress both in content and language acquisition, promoting academic communicative competencies and accelerating learning.